|
|
With an area of 1,285,215 square km, Peru is the third-largest
country in South America after Brazil and Argentina, ranking it
amongst the world's 20 largest nations.
Peru also holds sway over the sea up to 200 miles from the Peruvian
coast and has territorial rights to an area of 60 million hectares
in the Antarctic. Peru is divided into 24 departments. Lima is the
capital of Peru.
Peru is a nation of mixed ethnic origins. Throughout its history,
Peru has been the meeting ground for different nations and cultures.
The indigenous population was joined 500 years ago by
the Spaniards.
As a result of this encounter, and later enriched by the migration
of African blacks, Asians and Europeans, Peruvian man emerged as the
representative of a nation whose rich ethnic mix is one of its
leading characteristics.
As
part of its rich cultural tradition, Peru features many different
languages. Although Spanish is commonly spoken across the country,
Quechua is a major legacy of the Inca empire, and is still spoken
with regional dialects in many parts of Peru. In addition, other
languages are spoken such as Aymara (in Puno) and a startling
variety of dialects in the Amazon jungle, which are divided up into
15 linguistic families and 43 different languages.
Peru is a
naturally religious country: a diversity of beliefs and freedom of
worship can be seen from the wide range of festivals and rituals
that feature both Catholic fervor and the mysticism of age-old
pre-Hispanic cultures.
Peru is divided into three regions. Although this simple division is
a fair portrait of Peru's geography, the reality is much richer and
far more complex: in Peru, nature appears to have taken on
particular characteristics which have turned its mountains, plains,
jungles and valleys into unique habitats.
An extraordinary variety of eco-systems shelters a wide diversity of
animals and plants.
The
Coast
The Peruvian coastline is formed by a long snaking desert hemmed in
between the sea and the mountains. The Andes to the east and the
cold Humboldt sea current that runs along the coast are what make
this area so arid. From the Sechura desert to the Nazca plains and
the Atacama desert, the dry coastal terrain is occasionally split by
valleys covered by a thick layer of cloud and drizzle in the winter.
Humidity in these areas produces a sensation of cold, although
temperatures rarely dip below 12°C. During the summer, meanwhile,
the sun beats down and temperatures often top 30°C. The central and
southern sections of the coast feature two well-defined seasons:
winter from April to October, and summer from November to March. The
north coast, meanwhile, is not touched by the effects of the cold
current, which means it enjoys 300 days of sunshine a year and warm
temperatures all year-long (as much as 35°C in the summer). The rain
season runs from November to March.
The Highlands
In
the Peruvian highlands, there are two well-defined seasons: the dry
season (from April to October), marked by sunny days, cold nights
and the lack of rain (the ideal time for visiting); and the rainy
season (November to March), when there are frequent rain showers
(generally more than 1000 mm). A characteristic of the mountain
region is the
drop in temperature during the
day: temperatures commonly range around 24°C at midday before
plunging to -3°C at night.
The steep slopes of the Andes means temperatures gradually drop in
the highest region, known as the puna, the highland plain.
The dry and pleasant climate in the highlands makes it possible to
grow a wide variety of crops there.
The Jungle
The vast
Peruvian jungle
or rainforest, which surrounds the wide and winding
Amazon river, is divided into two differentiated areas: the cloud
forest (above 700 meters), which features a subtropical, balmy
climate, with heavy rain showers (around 3000 mm a year) between
November and March, and sunny days from April to October; and the
lowland jungle (below 700 meters), where the dry season runs from
April to October and is ideal for tourism, with sunshine and high
temperatures often topping 35°C.
During this season, the river levels dip and roads are easy to
drive. The rainy season, meanwhile, which runs from November to
March, features frequent rain showers (at least once a day) which
can damage roads in the area.
The jungle features high humidity all year long. In the southern
jungle, there are sometimes cold spells known locally as 'friajes'
or 'surazos', cold fronts which drift up from the far south of the
continent between May and August, where temperatures can drop to
8-12°C.
The First Settlers
The first settlers reached Peru some 20,000 years ago. They brought
stone tools and were hunter-gatherers, living off game and fruit.
Some of them settled in Paccaicasa, Ayacucho. The most ancient
Peruvian skeletal remains found to date (7000 BC) show the ancient
settlers had broad faces, pointed heads and stood 1.60 meters tall.
The early Peruvians left examples of cave paintings at Toquepala
(Tacna, 7600 BC) and houses in Chilca (Lima, 5800 BC).
The process of domesticating plants was to lay the foundations for
organized agriculture and the construction of villages and
ceremonial sites. As the regional cultures gradually integrated, new
techniques surfaced such as textile weaving, metallurgy and jewel
smithy, giving rise to advanced cultures.
The Pre-Incas Cultures
Over the course of 1400 years, pre-Inca cultures settled along the
Peruvian coast and highlands. The power and influence of some
civilizations was to hold sway over large swaths of territory, which
during their decline, gave way to minor regional centers. Many of
them stood out for their ritual pottery, their ability to adapt and
superb management of their natural resources; a vast knowledge from
which later the Inca empire was to draw.
The first Peruvian civilization settled in Huantar (Ancash) in
around (1200 - 1000 BC). The power of the civilization, based on a
theocracy, was centered in the Chavin de Huantar, temple, whose
walls and galleries were filled with sculptures of ferocious deities
with feline features.
The Paracas culture (200 AD - 600 BC) rose to power along the south
coast, and was to craft superb skills in textile weaving.
The north coast was dominated by the Moche civilization (200 AD -
600 BC). The culture was led by military authorities in the coastal
valleys, such as the Lord of Sipan. The Moche pots which featured
portraits, and their iconography in general were surprisingly
detailed and showed great skill in design.
The highlands saw the rise of the Tiahuanaco culture (200 AD) based
in the Collao region (which covered parts of modern-day Bolivia and
Chile). The Tiahuanaco was to bequeath a legacy of agricultural
terracing and the management of a variety of ecological zones.
The Nazca culture (300 AD - 900 BC) was able to tame the coastal
desert by bringing water through underground aqueducts. They carved
out vast geometric and animal figures on the desert floor, a series
of symbols believed to form part of an agricultural calendar which
even today baffles researchers.
The Wari culture (600 AD) introduced urban settlements in the
Ayacucho area and expanded its influence across the Andes.
The refined Chimu culture (1100 - 1500) crafted gold and other
metals into relics and built the mud-brick citadel of Chan Chan,
near the northern coastal city of Trujillo.
The Chachapoyas culture (800 AD) made the best possible use of
arable land and built their constructions on top of the highest
mountains in the northern cloud forest. The vast Kuelap fortress is
a fine example of how they adapted to their environment.
The Incas
The Inca empire (1200 - 1500 BC) was possibly the most organized
civilization in South America. Their economic system, distribution
of wealth, artistic manifestations and architecture impressed the
first of the Spanish chroniclers.
The Incas worshipped the earth goddess Pachamama and the sun god,
the
Inti. The Inca sovereign, lord of the Tahuantinsuyo,
the Inca empire, was held to be sacred and to be the descendant of
the sun god. Thus, the legend of the origin of the Incas tells how
the sun god sent his children
Manco Capac
and Mama Ocllo (and in another version the
four Ayar
brothers and their wives) to found Cuzco, the sacred
city and capital of the Inca empire.
The rapid expansion of the Inca empire stemmed from their
extraordinary organizational skills.
Communities were grouped, both as families and territorially, around
the ayllu, their corner of the empire, and even if villagers had to
move away for work reasons, they did not lose their bond to the
ayllu. The Inca moved around large populations, either as a reward
or punishment, and thus consolidated the expansion while drawing
heavily from the knowledge of the cultures that had flourished prior
to the Incas.
The Inca's clan was the
panaca,
made up of relatives and descendants, except for the one who was the
Inca's successor, who would then form his own panaca.
Sixteenth-century Spanish chroniclers recorded a
dynasty of 13 rulers,
running from the legendary
Manco Capac
down to the controversial
Atahualpa,
who was to suffer death at the hands of the Spanish conquerors.
The Tahuantinsuyo expanded to cover part of what is modern-day
Colombia to the north,
Chile and
Argentina to the
south and all of
Ecuador and
Bolivia.
The members of the panaca clans were Inca nobles, headed by the Inca
sovereign. The power of the clans and the Inca was tangible in every
corner of the empire, but the might of the Incas reached its peak in
the architecture of Cuzco: the
Koricancha or
Temple of the Sun, the fortresses of
Ollantaytambo and
Sacsayhuamán, and
above all the citadel of
Machu Picchu.
The encounter between two worlds
The encounter between the Inca culture and Hispanic culture got
underway as a result of the Spanish conquest in the early sixteenth
century. In 1532, the troops of Francisco Pizarro captured Inca
ruler Atahualpa in the northern highland city of Cajamarca. The
indigenous population was to dwindle during the first few decades of
Spanish rule, and the Vice-regency of Peru was created in 1542 after
a battle between the conquerors themselves and the Spanish Crown.
Spain's foothold in the New World was consolidated in the sixteenth
century when Viceroy Francisco de Toledo laid down a set of rules
governing the colonial economy: the mita system used indigenous
labor to operate the mines and produce arts and crafts. These
activities, together with a monopoly over trade, formed the basis of
the colonial economy. But the changeover in the dynasty and the
Borbon reforms in the eighteenth century sparked dissent among many
social sectors. The main indigenous uprising was led by Tupac Amaru
II, which was to set rolling the Creole movement that led to
independence of Hispanic America from the Spanish crown in the early
nineteenth century.
Until the 17th. century, the Peruvian vice-regency covered an area
stretching from Panama down to Tierra del Fuego.
The missionary work of the Catholic priests blended with ancient
Andean beliefs, forging a fusion of beliefs that still exists today.
The Spaniards also brought along African slaves, who together with
Spaniards and the indigenous population, form part of the social and
racial fabric of Peru.
During the 16th. and 17th. centuries, Peruvian intellectual writings
and colonial art contributed to Spanish tradition.
The birth of the Peruvian State
Peru was declared an independent nation by Jose de San Martin in
1821, and in 1824 Simon Bolivar put an end to the War of
Independence. However, despite efforts to organize the young
Peruvian republic, in the nineteenth century the country had to face
up to the cost of the struggle: a tough economic crisis and a
tradition of military strongmen who gave civilians little chance to
govern.
By 1860, thanks to income from guano, cotton and sugar, Peru was
able to do without enforced labor imposed on the indigenous
population and African slaves alike. Chinese and European immigrants
swelled the workforce and integrated with Peru's society. The
country was linked up by a railway network, and during the mandate
of President Manuel Pardo, Peru organized its first civilian
government. The first Japanese immigrants were to arrive at the end
of the nineteenth century.
But in 1879, the country found itself at war with Chile. Peru was
defeated and left bankrupt. After another spell of military regimes,
Peru returned to civilian rule, giving rise to a time called "the
Aristocratic Republic". The economy was dominated by the land-owning
elite, and an export-oriented model imposed. The success of the
rubber boom lent fresh splendor to the myth of El Dorado.
Peru Today
The early part of the 29th. century was marked by a drawn-out
civilian dictatorship headed by President Augusto B. Leguia. The
project to modernize the country, creating works for a New
Fatherland left the State heavily in debt and unable to deal with
the 1929 crash. It was also a time of intellectual creativity,
symbolized by the founder of the APRA party, Victor Raul Haya de la
Torre and Jose Carlos Mariategui, the father of Socialist beliefs in
Peru and the center of intellectual and artistic thinking in the
country during his short life.
After the fall of Leguia, military regimes once again rose to the
forefront, despite apparently having run their course with the
presidencies of Prado in 1939 and Bustamante y Rivero in 1945; but
in 1948 a new military government was formed by Manuel A. Odria.
Over the next eight years, major public works were built amidst
severe political repression.
Peru, which has made major efforts to forge friendly relations with
neighboring countries, has managed to overcome long-running border
conflicts. Navigation conditions along the Amazon River led to
agreements with Brazil, until in 1909 the frontier between the two
nations was finally established. After lengthy debate, the border
treaty with Colombia was approved by Congress in 1927, and
Colombians were granted an access route to the Amazon River. In
1929, after border disputes with Chile resulting from armed
conflict, the will to improve relations led both nations to sign a
treaty whereby the city of Tacna was returned to Peru.
The border with Bolivia was marked by mutual accord in 1932.
Finally, after several armed conflicts and diplomatic controversies
with Ecuador, Peru in 1999 managed to get the 1942 Rio Protocol to
prevail, closing the final chapter of the dispute over the territory
within the Cordillera del Condor mountain range, shoring up Peru's
relations with Ecuador.
In
1968, the armed forces staged a coup d'etat and overthrew
then-President Fernando Belaunde. The first few years of the
military regime stood out from other dictatorships in Latin America
in that Peru's military had socialist sympathies. Led by General
Juan Velasco, the military regime expanded the role of the State in
a bid to solve the problems that had impoverished the country. Thus
the State nationalized the oil industry, the media and carried out
an agrarian reform. Velasco was replaced by General Francisco
Morales-Bermudez, who bowed to public pressure and called for a
Constituent Assembly.
Belaunde was re-elected in 1980, but the deep-lying poverty spurred
the birth of two insurgencies which unleashed a wave of violence for
over a decade. After the government of Alan Garcia (1985-1990),
Alberto Fujimori was elected president in 1990, but shut down
Congress in 1992 and decreed an emergency government. He was
re-elected in 1995 and 2000, but public discontent forced him to
call fresh elections for 2001. Valentin Paniagua was then chosen to
head a caretaker government. In July 2001, Dr. Alejandro Toledo
Manrique took office as the Constitutional President and lately in
2006 Alan Garcia Perez set up at the Palace in Lima.
Fast facts:
- Population:
27.000.000 inhabitants. Urban:72,3%, Rural: 27,7 %
- Languages:
Spanish: 80,3%, Quechua 16,2%, Other languages 3,0%, Foreign
languages 0,2%
- Currency: The official currency in Peru is the Nuevo Sol (S/.),
which is divided into 100 centimos. The currency includes coins for
5, 10, 20 and 50 centimos and 1, 2 and 5 sol coins. There are bills
in the denomination of 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 Nuevos Soles.
Government: Peru is a democratic republic. The president and members
of Congress are elected every five years by universal suffrage. The
current constitutional president of Peru is Alan Garcia Pérez
(2006-2011).
- Ethnicity/race:
Amerindian 45%, Mestizo 37%, white 15%, black, Japanese,
Chinese, and other 3%
-
Religion: Roman Catholic: 89,03%. Evangelical: 6,73%, Other
religions: 2,56%, Any Religion: 1.65% |
